Australia is one of the world's most secular developed nations. The 2021 Census recorded 38.9 percent of Australians identifying as having no religion, an increase from 30.1 percent in 2016 and 22.3 percent in 2011. This marks the first time in Australian census history that a non-religious identification exceeded any single religious denomination. Christianity remains the largest religious category at 43.9 percent in 2021, down from 52.1 percent in 2016 and 61.1 percent in 2011. The proportion of Christians has declined in every census since 1966, when it stood at 88.2 percent. Among Christian denominations, Catholicism accounts for 20 percent of the population, Anglican 9.8 percent, Uniting Church 2.0 percent, Presbyterian and Reformed 1.3 percent, Eastern Orthodox 2.1 percent, Baptist 1.3 percent, and Pentecostal 1.0 percent. Islam is the largest non-Christian religion at 3.2 percent, followed by Hinduism at 2.7 percent, Buddhism at 2.4 percent, Sikhism at 0.8 percent, and Judaism at 0.4 percent. The median age of the no-religion population is 34 years, compared to 53 years for Anglicans and 54 years for Uniting Church members, indicating a generational shift away from organized religion.
Section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the Commonwealth from making any law establishing any religion, imposing any religious observance, or prohibiting the free exercise of any religion. This provision was adopted at Federation in 1901 and modeled on the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, though it applies only to federal law and not to state legislation. Unlike the American formulation, Section 116 has been interpreted narrowly by the High Court of Australia. In the 1981 case Attorney-General (Vic) v Commonwealth, known as the DOGS case, the court held that Section 116 does not prohibit government funding of religious schools. Australian states have no equivalent constitutional prohibitions, though they generally follow principles of religious neutrality in practice. Tasmania's Constitution Act 1934 states that no religious test shall be required for any public office, and similar provisions exist informally in other states. The Australian government maintains a formal separation between church and state in areas such as education policy and taxation, but funds religious organizations for social services and provides tax exemptions to registered religious institutions.
Religious observance in daily Australian life is low compared to other developed nations. The National Church Life Survey conducted in 2016 found that 15 percent of Australians attend religious services at least monthly, while 8.8 percent attend weekly. This compares to 47 percent weekly attendance in the United States and 18 percent in Canada. Among those who identify as Christian, only 12 percent of Anglicans attend monthly services, compared to 48 percent of Catholics and 53 percent of Pentecostals. The Australian Community Survey conducted by NCLS Research in 2018 found that 18 percent of Australians pray daily, 12 percent read sacred texts weekly, and 11 percent participate in religious small groups or study circles. Among Muslims in Australia, the 2017 Australian Muslim Community Survey found that 70 percent pray five times daily, 82 percent fast during Ramadan, and 54 percent attend Friday prayers regularly. Hindu Australians report higher rates of home-based religious practice than temple attendance, with the 2016 Census of Population and Housing finding that Hindu households are more likely to maintain home shrines than to live within ten kilometers of a Hindu temple.
Public holidays in Australia reflect Christian heritage but carry minimal religious content for most Australians. Christmas Day and Good Friday are federal public holidays under the National Employment Standards, but participation in religious services remains low. The 2019 McCrindle Christmas Survey found that 8 percent of Australians attend church on Christmas Day, while 67 percent exchange gifts, 56 percent gather with extended family, and 43 percent eat traditional Christmas lunch. Easter observance shows similar patterns. The Australian National University's Australian Election Study 2019 found that 3 percent of Australians attended religious services on Easter Sunday. Good Friday carries legal restrictions on trading in most states, with major retailers closed by law in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia, though these restrictions have weakened over successive decades. Western Australia permitted Sunday trading only from 2012, and South Australia maintains restrictions on most Sunday trading except in the Adelaide CBD. These trading laws originated in Christian sabbath observance but are now defended primarily on grounds of worker protections and family time rather than religious observance.
Religion appears minimally in Australian workplace culture. The Fair Work Act 2009 prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion in employment, and the Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986 provides similar protections. Australian workplaces generally accommodate religious practices such as prayer times, dietary requirements, and religious dress, though these accommodations are discretionary rather than mandatory in most states. The Australian Bureau of Statistics 2018 Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours found that 12 percent of workplaces provided dedicated prayer rooms, concentrated in large employers with over 200 staff. Workplace religious expression is uncommon. The Australian Workplace Barometer Survey 2014-2015 found that 3 percent of Australian workers discuss religion with colleagues weekly, compared to 42 percent who never discuss religion at work. Christmas parties are common workplace social events, attended by 47 percent of employees according to the 2019 Employsure Workplace Relations Survey, but these events carry no religious content and frequently occur in January rather than December.
Religious education in government schools varies by state. New South Wales permits special religious education under the Education Act 1990, allowing approved religious organizations to provide instruction for up to one hour per week during school hours. Parents may withdraw children, and non-participating students receive non-religious activities. The 2016 NSW Department of Education data showed that 35 percent of primary students participated in special religious education, down from 45 percent in 2006. Victoria ended religious instruction in government schools in 2015, replacing it with a secular ethics curriculum. Queensland permits religious instruction for up to one hour per week under the Education (General Provisions) Act 2006, with 21 percent participation in 2018 according to the Queensland Department of Education. South Australia permits religious education but has moved instruction to before or after school hours rather than during the school day, following a 2012 policy change. Western Australia allows one period per week during school hours, with 18 percent participation in 2017. Tasmania provides religious education outside school hours only. Government funding for religious schools is substantial. The 2021 Productivity Commission Report on Government Services found that 39 percent of Australian students attend non-government schools, predominantly Catholic and other Christian schools, which receive 63 percent of their funding from federal and state governments.
Catholic education is the largest non-government school system in Australia, enrolling 777,963 students in 1,755 schools as of 2021 according to the National Catholic Education Commission. These schools receive approximately 70 percent of their funding from government sources, with the remainder from school fees and parish contributions. Catholic schools range from low-fee parish schools charging approximately 1,000 to 3,000 dollars annually to high-fee private schools charging over 20,000 dollars per year. Religious education is mandatory in Catholic schools, typically consisting of one to two hours per week at primary level and one hour per week at secondary level. The 2018 Catholic Education Commission of Victoria data showed that 58 percent of students in Catholic schools identify as Catholic, 14 percent identify with other Christian denominations, 12 percent identify with non-Christian religions, and 16 percent identify as having no religion. Teacher religious affiliation in Catholic schools has shifted substantially. The 2019 National Catholic Education Commission survey found that 42 percent of teachers in Catholic schools identify as Catholic, down from 68 percent in 1990. Mass attendance among Catholic school students is low. A 2017 study by the Australian Catholic University found that 12 percent of Catholic secondary students attend Mass monthly outside school-required services.
Islam's presence in Australian daily life has increased with immigration from Lebanon, Turkey, Indonesia, Afghanistan, and Iraq. The Australian National Imam's Council reports approximately 340 mosques and prayer spaces operating in Australia as of 2023. The largest mosques include the Lakemba Mosque in Sydney, which accommodates 3,000 worshippers and draws 5,000 to 6,000 attendees for Friday prayers according to the 2018 Lebanese Muslim Association annual report. The Islamic Council of Victoria reports operating 80 mosques and prayer halls across Melbourne. Halal certification is common in Australian food retail. The 2020 Australian Food News industry report estimated that 70 percent of meat produced in Australia is halal certified, primarily for export markets to Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Middle East. Major supermarket chains stock halal products, and the 2019 Nielsen Homescan survey found that 23 percent of Australian households purchase halal-certified products at least occasionally, extending well beyond Muslim households. Islamic schools operate in most Australian cities, with 50 Islamic schools enrolling approximately 18,000 students as of 2021 according to the Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority. These schools receive government funding under the same formulas as other non-government schools.
Public discussion of Islam in Australia centers on integration and security rather than theology or practice. The Scanlon Foundation's Mapping Social Cohesion survey in 2021 found that 23 percent of Australians hold negative attitudes toward Muslims, down from 25 percent in 2019 but up from 14 percent in 2007. The same survey found that 47 percent of Australians believe there is underlying tension between Muslims and other Australians. Following the 2019 Christchurch mosque attacks in New Zealand, Australian public discourse shifted temporarily toward concerns about anti-Muslim violence. The Australian Federal Police data for 2020 showed 131 religiously motivated hate crimes reported nationally, though this figure is understood to represent significant underreporting. The Australian Human Rights Commission's Freedom from Discrimination report 2020 found that 20 percent of Muslim Australians experienced discrimination in the preceding year, concentrated in employment and service provision. The phrase "un-Australian" appears frequently in public discourse about religious practices, particularly regarding Islamic dress and customs, though its definition remains subjective and contested.
Hindu practice in Australia centers on home worship and festival observance rather than regular temple attendance. The Hindu Council of Australia reports approximately 120 Hindu temples and community centers operating as of 2023, concentrated in Sydney and Melbourne. Major temples include the Sri Mandir Temple in Sydney's northwestern suburbs, which claims 15,000 visitors for major festivals according to its 2019 annual report, and the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Melbourne, completed in 2021 at a cost of approximately 20 million dollars. Hindu festivals such as Diwali have gained limited mainstream recognition. The City of Sydney has sponsored an official Diwali celebration at Darling Harbour since 2013, drawing approximately 30,000 attendees according to the 2019 event report. The City of Melbourne began official Diwali celebrations in 2017, held at Federation Square. These events emphasize cultural performance and food rather than religious content. The 2019 Australian Community Survey found that 62 percent of Hindu Australians maintain a home shrine or puja space, while 24 percent visit temples monthly and 8 percent visit temples weekly.
Buddhism in Australia reflects both Asian immigration and Western convert communities. The 2021 Census recorded approximately 615,000 Buddhists, with the largest ethnic groups being Vietnamese at 28 percent, Chinese at 22 percent, and Australian-born at 16 percent according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The Buddhist Council of Victoria estimates that 300 Buddhist temples and meditation centers operate in Australia as of 2023. Vietnamese Mahayana temples constitute the largest number of Buddhist institutions, serving primarily as ethnic community centers. The Nan Tien Temple in Wollongong, completed in 1995, is the largest Buddhist temple in the Southern Hemisphere, covering 24 hectares and accommodating 10,000 visitors. It reports approximately 200,000 visitors annually according to its 2020 operational data, with most visitors identifying as cultural tourists rather than practicing Buddhists. Western Buddhist meditation centers, such as the Blue Mountains Insight Meditation Centre and the Vipassana Meditation Centre in Queensland, offer ten-day silent retreats following Theravada traditions. These centers report consistently full bookings with six to twelve month waiting lists according to their 2022 operational reports. Buddhist practice among Australian Buddhists varies substantially by ethnic background. The 2016 Australian Census analysis by NCLS Research found that 47 percent of Vietnamese Buddhists visit temples monthly, compared to 18 percent of Australian-born Buddhists.
Judaism in Australia is concentrated in Sydney and Melbourne, with approximately 118,000 Jews recorded in the 2021 Census. The Executive Council of Australian Jewry's 2019 demographic survey found that 57 percent of Australian Jews live in Melbourne, 36 percent in Sydney, and 7 percent elsewhere. Orthodox Judaism constitutes approximately 40 percent of affiliated Jews, Conservative 15 percent, and Reform 45 percent according to the same survey. Daily religious observance varies substantially between Orthodox and non-Orthodox communities. The 2019 Gen17 Australian Jewish Community Survey found that 82 percent of Orthodox Jews attend synagogue weekly, compared to 22 percent of Conservative Jews and 15 percent of Reform Jews. Kosher food is readily available in Jewish neighborhoods of Sydney and Melbourne. The Kashrut Authority of Australia and New Zealand certifies approximately 50 commercial establishments and 400 products as kosher as of 2023. The St Kilda and Caulfield neighborhoods in Melbourne contain approximately 15 kosher restaurants and 8 kosher butchers according to the 2022 Kosher Australia directory. Bondi and Dover Heights in Sydney contain approximately 12 kosher establishments. Jewish day schools enroll approximately 65 percent of Jewish primary students and 55 percent of Jewish secondary students according to the 2019 Gen17 survey. These schools range from strictly Orthodox institutions with gender-separated education and intensive religious studies to pluralist schools with secular curricula and optional religious instruction.
Sikhism in Australia has grown substantially with immigration from India, particularly Punjab. The 2021 Census recorded approximately 210,000 Sikhs, an increase from 126,000 in 2016. The Australian Sikh Association estimates that 25 gurdwaras operate in Australia as of 2023, with the largest in Glenwood, Sydney, completed in 2018 at a cost of approximately 3 million dollars. The gurdwara in Craigieburn, Melbourne, serves approximately 8,000 community members according to its 2020 annual report. Sikh observance in Australia centers on Sunday services and langar community meals. The 2019 Australian Sikh Survey conducted by Deakin University found that 68 percent of Sikhs attend gurdwara services at least monthly, 42 percent attend weekly, and 89 percent attend on major festivals such as Vaisakhi. The wearing of turbans and maintenance of uncut hair according to Khalsa observance occurs among approximately 60 percent of male Sikhs according to the same survey. Sikh Australians have sought accommodations for turban-wearing in occupations requiring safety helmets. Western Australia amended its Occupational Safety and Health Regulations in 2002 to permit turban-wearing Sikhs to ride motorcycles without helmets, and similar exemptions exist for construction work in several states, though these vary by jurisdiction and by risk assessment.
Indigenous Australian spirituality remains distinct from mainstream Australian religious life. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples constituted 3.2 percent of the Australian population in the 2021 Census, or approximately 812,000 people. The same census found that 50.6 percent of Indigenous Australians identify as Christian, 9.3 percent identify with other religions, and 40.1 percent identify as having no religion or do not state a religion. These figures do not capture traditional spiritual beliefs, as the census does not include Indigenous spiritual traditions as a religious category. The 2014-15 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey found that 33 percent of Indigenous Australians participated in cultural events or ceremonies in the previous year. Connection to country and observance of kinship obligations constitute core spiritual practices that operate outside formal religious frameworks. The Native Title Act 1993 recognizes Indigenous spiritual connection to land as a basis for legal claims, and over 2,200 native title claims have been registered with the National Native Title Tribunal as of 2023. Sacred sites such as Uluru, Kakadu National Park, and Nourlangie Rock have legal protections under the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984, though enforcement remains contentious. Tourism at Uluru ended climbing in October 2019 after decades of Indigenous requests, following a decision by the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park board.