Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, measuring 1,250 kilometers from east to west and spanning 109,884 square kilometers of land area. The island sits at the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, positioned between the Straits of Florida to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. Jamaica lies 140 kilometers south across the Windward Passage, while the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico is 210 kilometers west. The Florida Keys extend to within 145 kilometers of the Cuban north coast. Cuba consists of the main island plus the Isla de la Juventud and approximately 4,195 smaller keys and islets. The archipelago stretches across 15 degrees of longitude, creating distinct geographical zones from Cabo San Antonio in the west to Punta de Maisí in the east.
The Sierra Maestra mountain range dominates southeastern Cuba, extending 240 kilometers along the southern coast from Cabo Cruz to Santiago de Cuba. Pico Turquino, Cuba's highest point, rises 1,974 meters above sea level within this range. The Sierra Maestra contains some of the steepest coastal terrain in the Caribbean, with mountain slopes descending directly into the sea along portions of the southern coastline. The Escambray Mountains occupy central Cuba in the provinces of Cienfuegos, Sancti Spíritus, and Villa Clara, reaching maximum elevations near 1,140 meters at Pico San Juan. In western Cuba, the Guaniguanico range divides into two parallel cordilleras: the Sierra del Rosario and the Sierra de los Órganos, where limestone formations create the distinctive mogote landscape of Viñales Valley. Despite these upland areas, approximately 75 percent of Cuban territory consists of plains and gentle hills below 200 meters elevation.
The northern coastline extends 3,209 kilometers and features barrier island systems that create extensive shallow marine platforms. The Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, stretching 465 kilometers along the north-central coast, contains more than 2,500 individual keys including Cayo Coco, Cayo Guillermo, and Cayo Santa María. These barrier islands separate shallow lagoons from the open Atlantic, with some lagoons less than one meter deep extending 30 kilometers from the main island. The Los Canarreos Archipelago includes Isla de la Juventud and Cayo Largo del Sur off the south-central coast. The Jardines de la Reina archipelago extends 120 kilometers along the south-central shelf, positioned 80 to 100 kilometers offshore. The southern coastline measures 2,537 kilometers and includes extensive mangrove formations, particularly in the Zapata Peninsula region and along the Gulf of Guacanayabo.
The Zapata Peninsula contains the Ciénaga de Zapata, the largest wetland in the Caribbean at approximately 4,520 square kilometers. This region comprises sawgrass marshes, mangrove forests, and open water bodies that flood seasonally. The Zapata Swamp extends inland up to 175 kilometers from the southern coast. Water depths vary from a few centimeters to three meters depending on season and specific location. The Bahía de Cochinos, internationally known as the Bay of Pigs, forms the western boundary of the Zapata wetland complex. The Guanahacabibes Peninsula projects 100 kilometers into the Gulf of Mexico at Cuba's western tip, characterized by karst topography, cave systems, and dry forest vegetation distinct from the rest of the island.
Cuba's geology consists primarily of limestone formations deposited during the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. Karst topography covers approximately 67 percent of the island's surface, creating extensive cave networks, sinkholes, and underground drainage systems. The Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás in Pinar del Río province contains 46 kilometers of mapped passages, making it the largest cave system in Cuba and among the largest in Latin America. Limestone weathering produces the red and brown lateritic soils that cover much of the island's agricultural zones. The serpentinite and peridotite formations in eastern Cuba, particularly in Holguín and Guantánamo provinces, create ultramafic soils with high concentrations of nickel, chromium, and iron. These soils support specialized vegetation and contain economically significant mineral deposits.
Cuba experiences a tropical climate modified by maritime influences and the northeast trade winds. The island lies within the Caribbean tropical zone but maintains more moderate temperatures than equatorial regions due to surrounding ocean currents and consistent air circulation. The Gulf Stream flows northward along the western Cuban coast, moderating winter temperatures in that region. Sea surface temperatures range from 24°C in winter months to 29°C during summer, creating relatively stable atmospheric conditions compared to continental tropical regions. Elevation creates the only significant temperature variations within Cuba, with mountain areas experiencing conditions 5 to 8°C cooler than coastal lowlands at equivalent latitudes.
Annual average temperatures across most of Cuba range from 25°C to 27°C. January mean temperatures in Havana measure 22.2°C, while August averages reach 27.6°C. The eastern city of Santiago de Cuba records slightly warmer conditions, with January means of 24.3°C and July means of 28.1°C. The moderating effect of surrounding water creates a relatively small annual temperature range compared to continental locations at similar latitudes. Daily temperature fluctuations typically span 8 to 10°C between overnight lows and afternoon highs. Temperature extremes remain modest, with the highest recorded temperature of 38.8°C measured at Jucarito in Granma province during July 1903. The coldest recorded temperature reached 0.6°C at Bainoa in Mayabeque province during February 1996.
Cuba's precipitation patterns divide the year into a wet season from May through October and a dry season from November through April. This division aligns with the annual migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the intensity of convective rainfall processes. National average annual precipitation measures approximately 1,335 millimeters, though regional variations create dramatically different moisture regimes across the island. The mountainous areas of eastern Cuba receive the highest rainfall, with portions of the Sierra Maestra and the Sagua-Baracoa massif recording over 2,400 millimeters annually. The Baracoa region in Guantánamo province consistently ranks as Cuba's wettest area, with some locations exceeding 3,000 millimeters in particularly active years. The southeastern windward slopes capture moisture from the trade winds, producing orographic rainfall throughout the year.
The southern coastal plain from Guantánamo westward to Santiago de Cuba creates a pronounced rain shadow, receiving less than 600 millimeters annually in some locations. Guantánamo Bay records average annual precipitation of approximately 580 millimeters, making it the driest region in Cuba. Western Cuba generally receives intermediate precipitation levels, with Havana averaging 1,200 millimeters annually. The distribution of rainfall within the wet season shows considerable variability, with June typically recording the highest monthly totals across most of the island. October often produces a secondary precipitation maximum as tropical cyclone activity increases. During the dry season, months may pass with less than 50 millimeters of total rainfall in lowland areas.
Hurricanes represent the most significant meteorological hazard affecting Cuba. The island lies within the primary Atlantic hurricane development and transit corridor, experiencing direct impacts from tropical cyclones at varying frequencies across different regions. The official Atlantic hurricane season extends from June 1 through November 30, with peak activity occurring between August and October. Historical records indicate that Cuba experiences hurricane-force winds somewhere on the island approximately once every two years on average. The western and central portions of Cuba face higher hurricane frequency than eastern regions, though no area remains immune. Hurricane Irma in September 2017 generated maximum sustained winds of 260 kilometers per hour as it tracked along the northern coastline from Cayo Romano to the Havana region, causing extensive structural damage and coastal flooding.
The position of Cuba within the hurricane belt creates different risk profiles for specific regions. Pinar del Río province in western Cuba experiences direct hurricane impacts more frequently than any other province, receiving strikes from systems approaching from both the Caribbean to the south and the Gulf of Mexico to the west. The 2008 hurricane season demonstrated this vulnerability when Hurricane Gustav made landfall in western Cuba on August 30 with winds of 240 kilometers per hour, followed by Hurricane Ike crossing the same general region on September 8 with similar intensity. These consecutive events caused catastrophic damage to agricultural areas and housing stock in Pinar del Río and the Isla de la Juventud.