Latvia occupies 64,589 square kilometers on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, positioned between Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. The country shares its eastern border with Russia across 276 kilometers and its southeastern frontier with Belarus across 161 kilometers. The Baltic Sea coastline extends 498 kilometers, with the Gulf of Riga forming a substantial indentation into the northwestern portion of the country. This gulf measures approximately 16,000 square kilometers and reaches a maximum depth of 67 meters. Cape Kolka marks the point where the Gulf of Riga meets the open Baltic, creating a visible line where two water bodies of differing salinity and color converge.
The landmass divides into four historical and geographical regions. Vidzeme occupies the northeastern portion, encompassing the highest elevations and the Gauja River valley. Kurzeme stretches along the western coast and the Kurland Peninsula, characterized by amber-bearing beaches and pine forests. Zemgale forms the central southern plains, representing Latvia's most productive agricultural zone. Latgale lies in the southeast, distinguished by its lake district and different cultural-linguistic heritage reflecting centuries of Polish-Lithuanian influence. These regions remain administrative and cultural reference points rather than formal political divisions.
The terrain averages 87 meters above sea level, making Latvia one of Europe's flattest countries. The highest point, Gaiziņkalns, reaches 311.6 meters in Vidzeme near the town of Madona. The landscape formed during the last glaciation, which ended approximately 10,000 years ago. Retreating ice sheets left deposits of sand, gravel, and clay across the territory, creating rolling moraines, drumlins, and eskers. These glacial features produce the gentle hills visible throughout Vidzeme and parts of Kurzeme. Approximately 3,000 small lakes and wetlands occupy depressions carved by glacial melt. Razna Lake in Latgale covers 57.8 square kilometers, making it Latvia's largest. Alūksne Lake in northeastern Vidzeme measures 15.4 square kilometers, while Engure Lake on the western coast covers 40.7 square kilometers but averages less than half a meter in depth.
Four major river systems drain the country. The Daugava River, measuring 1,005 kilometers in total length, flows 352 kilometers through Latvian territory from the Belarusian border northwest to the Gulf of Riga at Riga. The river drops 350 meters across its Latvian course, creating rapid sections historically important for transportation barriers. Three hydroelectric dams built during Soviet occupation between 1939 and 1974 now regulate flow. The Gauja River runs 452 kilometers entirely within Latvia, carving the sandstone formations of Gauja National Park before entering the Gulf of Riga near Carnikava. The Venta River flows 346 kilometers, with 178 kilometers in Latvian territory, and creates Ventas Rumba waterfall near Kuldīga, the widest natural waterfall in Europe at 249 meters across during spring floods. The Lielupe River drains the central Zemgale plain across 119 kilometers before reaching the Gulf of Riga at Jūrmala.
Forest covers 52 percent of Latvia's land area, approximately 3.4 million hectares. Pine dominates sandy soils in coastal areas and accounts for 27 percent of forest coverage. Spruce occupies 18 percent, concentrated in moister central regions. Birch represents 30 percent, with aspen, alder, and oak comprising the remainder. The forest proportion increased from 38 percent in 1935 to current levels through organized afforestation programs and agricultural land abandonment following Soviet collectivization and subsequent independence. Timber exports constitute a significant economic sector, with sustainable forestry certification covering approximately 50 percent of commercial forest by 2020.
Wetlands occupy 10 percent of the country's surface, with raised bogs forming distinctive ecosystems. The Great Ķemeri Bog in Ķemeri National Park covers 6,191 hectares and accumulates peat at approximately one millimeter annually. Cenas Bog in eastern Latvia represents one of Europe's largest undisturbed raised bog systems at 14,500 hectares. These peatlands store an estimated 700 million tons of carbon. During the Soviet period, approximately 400,000 hectares of wetlands underwent drainage for agricultural conversion. Restoration projects initiated after 1991 have re-wetted approximately 10,000 hectares to restore hydrological function and reduce peat oxidation.
Four national parks protect representative landscapes. Gauja National Park, established in 1973 as the first protected area in the Soviet Baltic republics, covers 91,745 hectares along the Gauja River valley. Sandstone outcrops rise 90 meters above the river, creating cliffs and caves including Gutmanis Cave, which extends 18.8 meters into the rock face. Slītere National Park on the Kurland Peninsula protects 26,389 hectares of coastal forest and heath established in 1999. Ķemeri National Park near Jūrmala encompasses 38,165 hectares of wetland, forest, and coastline since 1997. Rāzna National Park surrounding Razna Lake covers 59,615 hectares designated in 2007. Additional nature reserves protect specific habitats, bringing the total protected area to approximately 18 percent of national territory.
Latvia experiences a temperate climate transitioning between maritime and continental influences. The Baltic Sea moderates coastal temperatures, producing milder winters and cooler summers than interior locations at similar latitudes. Mean January temperatures range from minus 2.8 degrees Celsius on the coast to minus 6.6 degrees Celsius inland in Latgale. July averages span 16.7 degrees Celsius on the coast to 17.6 degrees Celsius inland. The annual temperature range increases moving eastward from the maritime influence. Riga records an average annual temperature of 6.2 degrees Celsius based on 1991-2020 measurements.
Precipitation distributes relatively evenly across seasons, with slight summer maximums. Annual totals range from 500 to 800 millimeters, averaging 667 millimeters in Riga. Western coastal areas receive higher precipitation from Atlantic weather systems, while eastern regions remain comparatively drier. Snow covers the ground for 75 to 135 days annually, with duration increasing toward the northeast. Maximum snow depth typically occurs in late February, reaching 20 to 40 centimeters in normal years. Spring arrives between mid-March and early April as temperatures rise above freezing and snow melts. Autumn extends from September through November with gradually declining temperatures and increasing rainfall.
Daylight duration varies dramatically across seasons at Latvia's northern latitude. The summer solstice around June 21 provides 17.5 hours of daylight in Riga, with astronomical twilight extending throughout the short night. The winter solstice around December 21 reduces daylight to 6.5 hours. This photoperiod variation influences cultural traditions, agricultural practices, and seasonal psychology. The Jāņi festival celebrating the summer solstice on June 23-24 represents the most significant cultural holiday, marking maximum daylight when the sun barely sets in northern Latvia.
Atlantic cyclones track across Latvia throughout the year, bringing changeable weather. Winter cyclones occasionally produce strong winds exceeding 25 meters per second along the coast. The Baltic Sea freezes partially during severe winters, with the Gulf of Riga developing ice cover in most years. During the harsh winter of 2010-2011, ice thickness reached 60 centimeters in the gulf. Ice typically forms in December and breaks up in March, though warming trends have reduced frequency and duration. The last complete ice cover of the Gulf of Riga occurred in 1987.
Climate records reveal measurable warming trends. Mean annual temperature in Latvia increased by approximately 1.9 degrees Celsius between 1951 and 2019, exceeding the global average warming rate. Winter temperatures show the most pronounced increase, with January means rising 3.2 degrees Celsius during the same period. Precipitation increased by approximately 60 millimeters annually, concentrated in autumn and winter months. Growing season length extended by 15 to 20 days, shifting agricultural possibilities northward and enabling cultivation of crops previously limited by thermal requirements.