Latvia occupies 64,589 square kilometers on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, positioned between Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. The country extends approximately 450 kilometers from east to west and 210 kilometers from north to south at its widest points. The Baltic Sea forms 498 kilometers of coastline along the western border, while the Gulf of Riga creates an additional indentation that shapes the northwestern coastal geography. The entire territory sits on the East European Plain with no point exceeding 312 meters above sea level, making Latvia one of the flattest countries in Europe. Gaiziņkalns in Vidzeme holds the distinction of highest elevation at precisely 311.6 meters. The landscape developed through repeated glaciation, with the most recent Weichselian glaciation retreating approximately 10,000 years ago and leaving behind the characteristic low hills, thousands of lakes, and extensive peatlands that define modern Latvian topography.
The country divides into four historical and geographical regions that reflect distinct landscape characteristics. Vidzeme occupies the northeastern quadrant and contains the highest elevations and most pronounced relief, including the Vidzeme Upland where Gaiziņkalns rises. Kurzeme covers the western portion of Latvia between the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Riga, characterized by coastal lowlands and the Courland Peninsula extending northward. Zemgale spreads across the south-central plains, representing the flattest region with fertile agricultural soils formed on ancient glacial lake beds. Latgale fills the southeastern corner, distinguished by the country's highest concentration of lakes formed in depressions left by retreating glaciers. These regions do not constitute administrative divisions but represent deeply rooted cultural and geographical identities that persist in contemporary Latvian consciousness.
The Daugava River forms the principal waterway, flowing 1,020 kilometers total with 352 kilometers crossing Latvian territory. The river enters from Belarus near Krāslava, curves through Daugavpils, passes Jēkabpils and Pļaviņas, then continues through Riga before emptying into the Gulf of Riga. Before Soviet-era dam construction, the Daugava carried spring floods that reached 20,000 cubic meters per second. Three hydroelectric dams now regulate flow: Pļaviņas Dam completed in 1968, Riga Dam finished in 1974, and Ķegums Dam built in 1939. The Gauja River runs entirely within Latvia for 452 kilometers, draining much of Vidzeme before reaching the Gulf of Riga near Carnikava. The Gauja carved the deepest river valley in Latvia through Devonian sandstone, creating cliffs that reach 90 meters in height within what became Gauja National Park. The Venta River flows 346 kilometers with 178 kilometers in Latvia, notable for containing Ventas Rumba at Kuldīga, the widest waterfall in Europe at 249 meters across though only 1.8 to 2.2 meters in height. The Lielupe River drains 17,600 square kilometers, flowing past Jelgava before joining the Daugava near Riga.
Latvia contains approximately 12,500 rivers and streams with total length exceeding 38,000 kilometers, though only 777 rivers extend longer than 10 kilometers. This extraordinary density of waterways results from flat topography, high water table, and annual precipitation of 500 to 800 millimeters distributed relatively evenly throughout the year. Most rivers freeze between December and March, with ice thickness typically reaching 30 to 50 centimeters. Spring snowmelt produces pronounced high water periods usually peaking in April, when river levels can rise 3 to 5 meters above summer levels. The dense river network historically facilitated timber floating, an economic activity that continued until the 1980s when logs traveled down the Gauja, Daugava, and other rivers from interior forests to coastal sawmills and ports.
The country holds 2,256 lakes larger than one hectare, covering approximately 1.5 percent of total territory. Razna Lake in Latgale measures 57.81 square kilometers, making it Latvia's largest lake by surface area. The lake reaches maximum depth of 17.3 meters and contains several islands, with water level regulated since 1978 by a dam controlling outflow to the Rēzekne River. Alūksne Lake covers 38.4 square kilometers in northeastern Latvia with maximum depth of 15.2 meters, containing an island where German crusaders built a castle in 1342. Engure Lake spans 40.3 square kilometers along the Kurzeme coast but averages only 0.4 meters depth, functioning as a shallow lagoon separated from the Gulf of Riga by a narrow sand barrier and protected within Engure Nature Park since 1998. Usma Lake in Kurzeme covers 37.8 square kilometers with maximum depth of 38 meters, representing the deepest lake accessible for recreation. Lake Kaņieris near Riga formed when beach ridge development cut off a former bay, creating a 12.9 square kilometer brackish lake now protected in Ķemeri National Park.
Most Latvian lakes occupy glacial depressions, either formed by ice block melting or scouring by glacier movement. Latgale contains the highest concentration with over 1,000 lakes, many grouped in clusters where glacial terrain created numerous depressions in close proximity. Lake retention time varies considerably, from several years in large deep lakes to months in shallow systems. Eutrophication affects many lakes due to agricultural runoff, particularly in Zemgale where intensive farming surrounds several water bodies. Lake Burtnieks in northern Vidzeme covers 40.06 square kilometers but averages only 2.7 meters depth, making it highly susceptible to nutrient loading from surrounding farmland. Winter ice cover lasts approximately 120 to 150 days on larger lakes, with ice fishing representing a traditional activity during January through March when ice thickness exceeds 25 centimeters.
Peatlands cover 10.4 percent of Latvia's territory, totaling approximately 670,000 hectares distributed across more than 6,000 separate bogs and fens. This represents one of Europe's highest proportions of peatland coverage. Raised bogs developed over thousands of years in areas where Sphagnum moss accumulation exceeded decomposition rates, creating acidic environments poor in nutrients but rich in specialized plant species. Great Ķemeri Bog in Ķemeri National Park extends across 6,200 hectares, featuring a wooden boardwalk constructed in 2014 that allows visitors to traverse 3.4 kilometers into the bog interior. Cenas Bog in eastern Latvia covers approximately 8,000 hectares, representing one of the largest intact raised bog systems in the Baltic states. Teiči Nature Reserve protects 19,779 hectares of peatland complex in eastern Latvia, designated as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance in 1995.
Peat deposits reach 10 meters depth in some raised bogs, representing approximately 8,000 years of accumulation. During Soviet occupation, large-scale peat extraction drained many bogs for fuel and horticultural peat production, with approximately 30 percent of Latvia's original peatlands significantly altered by 1990. After independence, conservation efforts focused on protecting remaining intact systems and rewetting some extracted areas. Peatlands store an estimated 1.5 billion tons of carbon in Latvia, making their preservation significant for climate regulation. Bog vegetation includes cranberries, blueberries, cloudberries, and rare carnivorous plants such as round-leaved sundew and common butterwort that supplement nutrient-poor conditions by trapping insects. Pine trees grow on some raised bogs but remain stunted, rarely exceeding 5 meters in height despite ages reaching 200 years.