Mongolia occupies 1,564,116 square kilometers in the northern interior of the Asian continent, bordered by Russia across 3,485 kilometers to the north and China across 4,677 kilometers to the south, east, and west. The country has no coastline and lies at a mean elevation of 1,580 meters above sea level, making it the world's second-highest average elevation for a country after Bhutan. The landscape divides into three major regions: the mountainous north and west, the steppe plateau of central Mongolia, and the Gobi Desert stretching across the southern third of the country.
The Altai Mountains form Mongolia's western boundary, running northwest-to-southeast for over 1,000 kilometers. Tavan Bogd, the highest massif in this range, includes Khüiten Peak at 4,374 meters, Mongolia's highest point. This peak marks the convergence of Mongolia, Russia, and China and maintains permanent glaciers despite the region's extreme continental climate. The Altai Tavan Bogd National Park protects 636,161 hectares of this mountain system. Petroglyphs dating from 11,000 BCE to 1,000 CE cover rock faces throughout the Altai, particularly concentrated in the valleys near present-day Bayan-Ölgii Province. The Mongolian Altai continues into the Gobi-Altai range, a southeastern extension reaching into the desert with peaks declining to 2,000-3,000 meters.
The Khangai Mountains occupy central Mongolia, forming an east-west arc roughly 800 kilometers long. Unlike the sharp, glaciated peaks of the Altai, the Khangai presents rounded, forested summits typically ranging from 2,500 to 3,500 meters. Otgontenger, the range's highest point at 4,021 meters, lies in Zavkhan Province. The Khangai serves as the primary watershed for Mongolia's major river systems. The Orkhon River, Mongolia's longest at 1,124 kilometers, originates in the eastern Khangai and flows north through the Orkhon Valley before joining the Selenge River. The Selenge, which drains 447,060 square kilometers across Mongolia and Russia, ultimately discharges into Lake Baikal, making it the lake's primary tributary.
The Khentii Mountains extend northeast from Ulaanbaatar toward the Russian border, covering roughly 100,000 square kilometers. Peaks here typically reach 2,000-2,800 meters, with Asralt Khairkhan at 2,800 meters marking the highest point. The Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area encompasses 1,227,469 hectares of this range. According to multiple historical sources, Genghis Khan was born in the Khentii region near the Onon River around 1162, though the exact location remains disputed among scholars. The range contains Mongolia's most extensive forest coverage, with Siberian larch, Scots pine, and Siberian pine dominating above 1,400 meters. The Kherlen River, which flows 1,254 kilometers eastward from the Khentii into China's Hulun Lake, forms one of three rivers originating in this mountain system—the others being the Onon and Tuul.
Mongolia's steppe grasslands extend across approximately 900,000 square kilometers of the Mongolian Plateau, a vast elevated plain averaging 1,000-1,500 meters above sea level. The Central Asian Steppe ecosystem, which continues into Russia's Transbaikal region and northern China's Inner Mongolia, supports over 400 species of grasses and forbs. Feather grass species, including Stipa capillata and Stipa krylovii, dominate the landscape along with sedges, alliums, and artemisia. The steppe receives 200-350 millimeters of precipitation annually, concentrated almost entirely between May and September. Winter snow cover typically measures less than 10 centimeters, exposing grasses that sustain livestock through temperatures reaching minus 40 degrees Celsius.
The Gobi Desert covers roughly 500,000 square kilometers across southern Mongolia and northern China, making it the fifth-largest desert globally by area. Within Mongolia, the Gobi spans approximately 300,000 square kilometers. Unlike sand-sea deserts, the Gobi consists primarily of exposed bedrock and gravel plains, with sand dunes occupying less than five percent of its total area. The Khongoryn Els sand dunes in Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park stretch 180 kilometers long and reach heights of 200 meters, representing the desert's most extensive dune field. Annual precipitation in the Gobi ranges from 50 millimeters in the driest areas to 200 millimeters in northern transition zones. Summer temperatures regularly exceed 40 degrees Celsius while winter lows drop below minus 30 degrees Celsius, creating the temperature range of over 70 degrees that characterizes extreme continental climates.
Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park, established in 1993 and expanded to 2,693,713 hectares, protects the northern Gobi's most biodiverse region. The park's name translates to "Three Beauties of the Gobi," referring to three sub-ranges: Baruun Saikhan, Dund Saikhan, and Züün Saikhan. Yolyn Am, a valley in the Züün Saikhan range, maintains ice formations through summer despite its location at 43 degrees north latitude. The valley's north-facing orientation and walls rising 200 meters create permanent shade that preserves ice accumulations from winter. However, observations since 2000 indicate ice now melts completely by late summer most years, a pattern shift attributed to rising regional temperatures.
Lake Khövsgöl lies in northern Mongolia at 1,645 meters elevation, measuring 136 kilometers long, up to 36 kilometers wide, and reaching a maximum depth of 262 meters. With a volume of 380.7 cubic kilometers, Khövsgöl contains 70 percent of Mongolia's fresh water and approximately 0.4 percent of the world's total fresh water supply. The lake formed in a tectonic basin created by the same rift system that produced Lake Baikal, located 200 kilometers to the northeast. Water temperatures remain below 10 degrees Celsius year-round, supporting unique cold-water species including the Hovsgol grayling. Ice covers the lake surface from January through May, reaching thickness of 1.2-1.5 meters. Khövsgöl Nuur National Park, established in 1992, protects 1,183,000 hectares surrounding the lake.
Lake Uvs, Mongolia's largest lake by surface area, covers 3,350 square kilometers in the western province of Uvs. The lake lies in a closed basin at 759 meters elevation, making it Mongolia's lowest point. As an endorheic salt lake with salinity ranging from 12 to 35 grams per liter depending on seasonal inflow, Uvs supports limited biodiversity but serves as a critical stopover for migrating waterfowl. The Uvs Nuur Basin, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, encompasses 1,068,853 hectares across twelve separate protected areas. The basin demonstrates extreme temperature variation, with recorded highs of 47 degrees Celsius and lows of minus 58 degrees Celsius, representing a 105-degree range.
Mongolia's climate exhibits extreme continentality, with January mean temperatures of minus 20 to minus 35 degrees Celsius across most regions and July means of 15 to 25 degrees Celsius. Ulaanbaatar, at 1,350 meters elevation, holds the distinction of coldest national capital globally with a January mean of minus 24.6 degrees Celsius based on data from 1961-1990. The city experiences over 250 days of sunshine annually. Precipitation patterns show strong geographic variation: northern mountain regions receive 350-400 millimeters annually while southern Gobi areas receive less than 100 millimeters. Approximately 85 percent of annual precipitation falls between May and September, primarily as convective thunderstorms. Winter precipitation arrives as snow but accumulates minimally due to sublimation in the dry continental air.