Norway occupies the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, extending from approximately 57°57'N to 71°11'N latitude along its mainland, with an additional archipelago territory at Svalbard reaching beyond 80°N. The mainland spans 385,207 square kilometers, while total territory including Svalbard and Jan Mayen covers 625,217 square kilometers. The country shares a 1,619-kilometer border with Sweden to the east, a 727-kilometer border with Finland to the northeast, and a 196-kilometer border with Russia at its northernmost point in Finnmark. Mainland Norway measures approximately 1,752 kilometers from Lindesnes in the south to Nordkapp, though the straight-line distance is only 1,190 kilometers due to the pronounced coastal irregularity. The coastline extends 25,148 kilometers when measured to include all mainland indentations, or 83,281 kilometers when incorporating islands, making it one of the longest and most complex coastlines relative to land area of any nation.
The dominant topographical feature is the Scandinavian mountain range running the length of the country along the Swedish border, creating a natural spine that divides Norway into distinct western and eastern climatic and ecological zones. These mountains were formed primarily during the Caledonian orogeny approximately 400 to 500 million years ago, then substantially modified by repeated glaciation during Quaternary ice ages, the most recent ending roughly 10,000 years ago. Galdhøpiggen in the Jotunheimen range reaches 2,469 meters above sea level, making it the highest point in Norway and Scandinavia. Jotunheimen contains more than 250 peaks exceeding 1,900 meters. The second-highest peak, Glittertind, was historically listed at 2,465 meters including its glacial cap, but current measurements place the rock summit at 2,452 meters, with the glacier having receded substantially since the 1960s. Store Skagastølstind reaches 2,405 meters and is considered among the most technically challenging peaks in the range.
Western Norway is defined by fjords, narrow seawater inlets carved by glacial erosion during successive ice ages when ice streams cut valleys below sea level. Sognefjord extends 205 kilometers inland from the Norwegian Sea and reaches a maximum depth of 1,308 meters at its deepest point near Høyanger, making it the longest and deepest fjord in Norway and the second-longest in the world after Scoresby Sund in Greenland. The fjord's tributary Nærøyfjord narrows to just 250 meters at its tightest point and is flanked by cliffs rising 1,400 meters directly from the water. Hardangerfjord extends 179 kilometers and is notable for the Folgefonna glacier visible from much of its length. Geirangerfjord, extending 15 kilometers inland from Sunnylvsfjorden, is flanked by peaks reaching 1,500 meters and features waterfalls including the Seven Sisters, which drops 250 meters in seven separate streams. Both Geirangerfjord and Nærøyfjord received UNESCO World Heritage designation in 2005 as outstanding examples of fjord landscapes.
The western fjord landscape results from differential erosion where glaciers exploited pre-existing river valleys, deepening them far below sea level while leaving intervening mountain ridges intact. The U-shaped valley profiles characteristic of glacial erosion are evident throughout western Norway, contrasting with V-shaped profiles typical of river erosion visible in areas not subjected to intense glacial scouring. Glacial striations on exposed bedrock surfaces throughout the region preserve directional evidence of ice movement, generally flowing from interior ice accumulation zones toward the coast. Many valleys contain chains of lakes at varying elevations, representing ice-carved basins where bedrock resistance varied or where terminal moraines formed natural dams. Hornindalsvatnet, located inland from Nordfjord, reaches a depth of 514 meters, making it the deepest lake in Europe.
Hardangervidda, Europe's largest mountain plateau, extends across approximately 8,000 square kilometers at elevations primarily between 1,000 and 1,400 meters. The plateau surface is relatively flat with gentle undulations, containing thousands of small lakes and extensive wetland areas. Vegetation is primarily alpine tundra with dwarf birch, lichens, and mosses. The plateau supports mainland Europe's largest population of wild reindeer, estimated at 8,000 to 10,000 individuals in several distinct herds. Hardangervidda National Park, established in 1981, protects 3,422 square kilometers of this landscape. The plateau receives heavy precipitation from westerly weather systems, feeding numerous rivers including the Numedalslågen and Skiensvassdraget systems draining eastward and the Bjoreia system draining westward toward Hardangerfjord. Winter conditions on the plateau are severe, with temperatures regularly dropping below minus 20 degrees Celsius and wind speeds capable of producing whiteout conditions.
The Norwegian coast is fronted by approximately 50,000 islands, a figure varying depending on minimum size criteria. This extensive archipelago creates a protected shipping channel called the Leads, historically vital for north-south maritime transport and still used by the Hurtigruten coastal ferry service. The Lofoten Islands, located between 67° and 68°N latitude, form a 150-kilometer arc separated from the mainland by Vestfjorden. The islands rise abruptly from the ocean, with peaks including Higravstinden reaching 1,146 meters within two kilometers of the shore. The steep bathymetry offshore creates powerful tidal currents, with Moskstraumen near the southern tip of Moskenesøya reaching speeds of 5 knots during spring tides. This current system was described in Edgar Allan Poe's "A Descent into the Maelström," though the literary description exaggerated actual hazards. Lofoten experiences a significantly milder climate than its latitude would suggest, with January mean temperatures around minus 1 degree Celsius due to the North Atlantic Current, a continuation of the Gulf Stream system.
The Vesterålen Islands, located immediately north of Lofoten, are generally lower in elevation but share similar geological composition dominated by Precambrian gneisses and granites. The continental shelf extends far offshore in this region before dropping away to the Norwegian Sea basin. This bathymetric configuration creates highly productive marine environments where nutrients are brought to surface waters, supporting substantial fish populations historically exploited by seasonal fisheries. Arctic cod, locally called skrei, migrate from the Barents Sea to spawn in waters around Lofoten and Vesterålen between January and April, a pattern that has sustained fishing communities for more than 1,000 years. Archaeological evidence from the island of Vestvågøya indicates fishing-based settlement dating to approximately 500 CE.
The Arctic Circle crosses Norway at approximately 66°33'N latitude, passing just south of Mo i Rana in Nordland county. North of this line, the sun remains continuously above the horizon for a period centered on the summer solstice and continuously below the horizon for a period centered on the winter solstice. At Bodø, just north of the Arctic Circle at 67°17'N, midnight sun lasts from approximately June 3 to July 9, while polar night with full 24-hour darkness does not occur, though civil twilight lasts from December 15 to December 28. At Tromsø, located at 69°40'N, midnight sun extends from approximately May 20 to July 22, and polar night from November 26 to January 15. At Longyearbyen in Svalbard, positioned at 78°13'N, midnight sun lasts from approximately April 20 to August 23, and polar night from October 26 to February 15.