The Omani population in 2023 census data stood at approximately 4.6 million, with Omani nationals representing roughly 60 percent and expatriate workers composing the remainder. Omani Arabs form the majority ethnic group, concentrated in the interior mountain regions and coastal cities. The Baloch community, descended from migrations from Balochistan beginning in the 18th century, numbers several hundred thousand and maintains distinct cultural practices while integrating into Omani society. Swahili-speaking Omanis, descendants of populations that returned from Zanzibar and East African coastal territories during the 19th and 20th centuries, preserve linguistic and cultural connections to Africa. Smaller communities include Persians along the Batinah Coast, South Asian groups with multi-generational presence in trading centers, and Jibali people in Dhofar who speak non-Arabic Semitic languages. The Shihuh people inhabit the Musandam Peninsula's mountainous terrain, maintaining semi-nomadic traditions distinct from other Omani populations. This demographic structure reflects Oman's historical position as a maritime trading power connecting Arabia, Persia, East Africa, and the Indian subcontinent.
Arabic serves as the official language, with Omani dialects varying significantly between regions. The dialect spoken in Muscat and northern coastal areas differs markedly from Dhofari Arabic in the south. Non-Arabic languages persist in specific communities. Jibali, also called Shehri, is spoken by an estimated 25,000 to 50,000 people in Dhofar's mountain regions. Bathari, Harsusi, and Hobyot are additional Modern South Arabian languages with small speaker populations in eastern Dhofar and adjacent areas. Balochi speakers maintain their language in domestic contexts while conducting business in Arabic. Swahili remains spoken within families of East African descent, particularly in Muscat and Sur. Kumzari, a unique Indo-Iranian language mixing Persian, Arabic, and other elements, persists among several thousand speakers in northern Musandam. English functions as the primary foreign language in business, tourism, and education, taught in schools from early grades. Urdu and Hindi have widespread recognition due to the large South Asian expatriate workforce.
Islam arrived in Oman during the Prophet Muhammad's lifetime, with the 630 CE conversion of the rulers of Sohar marking one of the earliest adoptions in Arabia. Approximately 85 to 90 percent of Omani citizens practice Ibadi Islam, a distinct branch predating the Sunni-Shia split that emerged from the Kharijite movement of the 7th century. Ibadism emphasizes imamate by merit rather than hereditary succession, promotes consensus-based leadership, and historically practiced quietism rather than militant expansion. The Omani interpretation developed its own legal schools and theological texts centered in Nizwa, which served as the seat of elected imams for centuries. Sunni Muslims, primarily Shafi'i in legal tradition, constitute most of the remaining Muslim population, concentrated in coastal areas and Dhofar. Small Shia communities exist, particularly among populations of Persian descent. The Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque in Muscat, completed in 2001, accommodates 20,000 worshippers and features the second-largest hand-woven carpet in the world at 4,343 square meters and a chandelier containing 1,122 Swarovski crystals. Non-Muslim religious practice occurs within expatriate communities, with churches and temples operating in designated areas, though proselytizing to Muslims remains prohibited. The government manages religious affairs through the Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs.
The Al Said dynasty has governed Oman since Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi seized power in 1744 after expelling Persian invaders and emerged from civil conflict as imam and sultan. Ahmad bin Said consolidated control from the interior stronghold of Rustaq, establishing a political structure that balanced tribal leadership, religious authority, and maritime commercial interests. His successors expanded Omani influence across the Indian Ocean during the late 18th and 19th centuries. Sultan Said bin Sultan, who ruled from 1806 to 1856, relocated the capital to Zanzibar in 1832 to better control East African trade routes, creating an empire that stretched from Balochistan to Mozambique. The Omani Empire controlled Mombasa, the Swahili coast, and Zanzibar's clove plantations, developing a prosperous slave and ivory trade alongside legitimate commerce in dates, frankincense, and textiles. Following Said bin Sultan's death in 1856, the empire split between his sons, with Thuwaini bin Said ruling Muscat and Oman while Majid bin Said took Zanzibar. British intervention through the Canning Award of 1861 formalized this division, requiring Zanzibar to pay annual subsidy to Muscat. British pressure forced the closure of slave markets and reduction of the slave trade during the late 19th century, diminishing Omani commercial power.
Internal divisions characterized the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Treaty of Seeb, signed on September 25, 1920, formally recognized the authority of the Imam of Oman in the interior regions while acknowledging the Sultan's control of the coast, creating a de facto partition. Sultan Said bin Taimur, who ruled from 1932 to 1970, maintained an isolationist policy that severely restricted development, education, and contact with the outside world. By 1970, Oman possessed only three schools, ten kilometers of paved roads, and one hospital. The country remained largely medieval in infrastructure despite oil discovery in 1962. Slavery persisted officially until 1970, though in diminished form after British pressure. The Dhofar Rebellion, beginning in 1962 and intensifying after 1965, saw Marxist-backed insurgents control significant territory in southern Oman with support from the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. The rebellion threatened the stability of the entire sultanate and drew British military assistance.
Sultan Qaboos bin Said deposed his father on July 23, 1970, in a palace coup supported by British intelligence and Omani military officers. He immediately declared the end of the old order, renamed the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman to simply Oman, and announced comprehensive modernization plans. Renaissance Day, celebrated annually on July 23, marks this transition. Sultan Qaboos ended the Dhofar Rebellion by 1976 through combined military pressure and development initiatives that brought education, healthcare, and infrastructure to neglected regions. He granted amnesty to rebels who surrendered and integrated them into national institutions. The transformation proceeding from 1970 was extraordinary in scope. By 1980, Oman possessed over 1,000 schools, multiple hospitals, thousands of kilometers of paved roads, and expanding electricity networks. Sultan Qaboos commissioned the first university in 1986, Sultan Qaboos University, which opened with 500 students and has expanded to serve over 16,000. The government invested oil revenues systematically in ports, airports, telecommunications, and social services while maintaining fiscal discipline that avoided the debt crises affecting some neighboring states.
Sultan Qaboos ruled for 49 years until his death on January 10, 2020. His governance style combined absolute authority with consultative institutions. He served simultaneously as prime minister, defense minister, finance minister, and foreign minister for most of his reign, maintaining direct control over key state functions. He never married after an early divorce and produced no children, creating uncertainty about succession. The Basic Law of the State, promulgated in 1996, established procedures for succession within the Al Said family and outlined citizen rights and government structure, functioning as Oman's constitution. Qaboos established the State Council and Majlis al-Shura as consultative bodies, with the latter gaining limited legislative powers and electoral expansion over time. By 2011, the Majlis al-Shura included 84 members elected by universal suffrage, though it could not initiate legislation without government approval.
The Arab Spring protests reached Oman in February 2011, with demonstrations in Sohar, Muscat, and other cities demanding jobs, political reform, and action against corruption. The protests remained largely non-violent compared to other regional uprisings. Sultan Qaboos responded by replacing ministers, increasing minimum wages, creating 50,000 government jobs, and expanding Majlis al-Shura powers. Security forces cleared protest camps in Sohar and other locations, resulting in at least two deaths. The government arrested some protest leaders while implementing economic concessions that reduced immediate tensions. These reforms addressed surface grievances without fundamentally altering the political system's authoritarian structure.